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Öğe Application of waste ceramic powder as a cement replacement in reinforced concrete beams toward sustainable usage in construction(Elsevier, 2023) Aksoylu, Ceyhun; Oztilic, Yasin Onuralp; Bahrami, Alireza; Yildizel, Sadik Alper; Hakeem, Ibrahim Y.; Ozdoner, Nebi; Basaran, BogachanThe main purpose of this study was to investigate the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams (RCBs) containing waste ceramic powder (CP) as partial replacement of cement. For this purpose, flexural tests were carried out using various amounts of mixing ratios. By determining the amount of CP utilized in the optimum ratios, it was aimed both to make predictions for design engineers and to show its beneficial effect on the environment by recycling the waste material. For this purpose, twelve specimens were produced and verified to monitor the flexural behavior. The longitudinal reinforcements percentage (0.77%, 1.21%, and 1.74%) and CP percentage (0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%) were chosen as the parameters. CP could be effectively used up to 10% of cement as a replacement material. Increasing the CP percentage by more than 10% could considerably reduce the load-carrying capacity, ductility, and stiffness of RCBs, specifically when the longitudinal reinforcements percentage was high. In other words, as CP increased from 0% to 30%, the load-carrying capacity decreased between 0.4% and 27.5% compared with RCBs with the longitudinal tension reinforcements of 2 phi 8 without CP. However, reductions of 5.5-39.8% and 2.15-39.5% in the load-carrying capacity occurred respectively compared with RCBs with the longitudinal tension reinforcements of 2 phi 10 and 2 phi 12 without CP. The achieved longitudinal reinforcements percentage was close to the balanced ratio, while more than 10% CP cannot be used without any precautions for mixtures.Öğe Behavior of Confined Self-Compacting Concrete under Compression at Elevated Temperatures(Mdpi, 2023) Khan, Athiq Ulla; Kumar, Nanjundaswamy Sateesh; Bahrami, Alireza; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Imran, Mohammed; Althaqafi, Essam; Islam, SaifulThe performance of self-compacting concrete (SCC) is gaining popularity in construction due to its exceptional strength and durability. However, the properties of combined steel and concrete at elevated temperatures lack experimental data from previous research. This study aimed to investigate the behavior of the SCC core with a steel tube at ambient and elevated temperatures varying from 100 degrees C to 800 degrees C with 100 degrees C intervals for each test specimen. Tests were conducted on circular steel tubes filled with SCC for different grades (M25, M30, and M40) under compression at elevated temperatures. Experimental observations revealed that the stress-strain curve increased with increasing the cross-sectional area and grade of concrete. However, increasing the temperature and length-to-diameter ratio reduced the stress-strain curve. At elevated temperatures, confined SCC experienced a smaller decrease in the overall modulus of elasticity when compared to unconfined concrete. Within the compressive elastic region (from 30 degrees C to 400 degrees C), there was a significant relationship between lateral strain and longitudinal strain, which was followed by a sudden increase beyond 400 degrees C. Equations for various design parameters were proposed based on the peak load and confinement factor of confined SCC-filled steel tubes (SCCFSTs) via multiple regression. Moreover, this study developed load-axial shortening curves, identifying significant properties such as the yield strength of confined SCCFSTs, including the load-carrying capacity. The predicted numerical analysis results were well aligned with the experimental results, and the findings contributed valuable insights for designing resilient and durable combined SCC and steel tube infrastructures.Öğe Behavior of Fibers in Geopolymer Concrete: A Comprehensive Review(Mdpi, 2024) Sharma, Ujjwal; Gupta, Nakul; Bahrami, Alireza; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Verma, Manvendra; Berwal, Parveen; Althaqafi, EssamOver the last decades, cement has been observed to be the most adaptive material for global development in the construction industry. The use of ordinary concrete primarily requires the addition of cement. According to the record, there has been an increase in the direct carbon footprint during cement production. The International Energy Agency, IEA, is working toward net zero emissions by 2050. To achieve this target, there should be a decline in the clinker-to-cement ratio. Also, the deployment of innovative technologies is required in the production of cement. The use of alternative binding materials can be an easy solution. There are several options for a substitute to cement as a binding agent, which are available commercially. Non-crystalline alkali-aluminosilicate geopolymers have gained the attention of researchers over time. Geopolymer concrete uses byproduct waste to reduce direct carbon dioxide emissions during production. Despite being this advantageous, its utilization is still limited as it shows the quasi-brittle behavior. Using different fibers has been started to overcome this weakness. This article emphasizes and reviews various mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete, focusing on its development and implementation in a wide range of applications. This study concludes that the use of fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete should be commercialized after the establishment of proper standards for manufacturing.Öğe Crashworthiness performance of filament wound GFRP composite pipes depending on winding angle and number of layers(Elsevier, 2024) Hakeem, Ibrahim Y.; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Bahrami, Alireza; Aksoylu, Ceyhun; Madenci, Emrah; Asyraf, Muhammad Rizal Muhammad; Beskopylny, Alexey N.The main goal of this study is to enhance the crashworthiness performance of tubular composites to absorb more energy by optimizing the winding angle of their fibers. The crashworthiness performance of glass fiber-reinforced polymer composite pipes manufactured using the filament winding is investigated in detail. The effects of the winding angle of the fibers and thickness of the tube wall on the energy absorption were examined through quasi-static compression tests. The composite pipes were produced with 1200 tex E-glass fibers and Epikote 828 resin as the matrix material. The winding angles of +/- 30 degrees, +/- 45 degrees, +/- 55 degrees, +/- 75 degrees, and +/- 90 degrees were evaluated, and the number of the winding layers, ranged from 1 to 3, was also assessed. Quasi-static axial compressive loading was applied to 15 specimens using a hydraulic actuator. The results revealed that the one-layer specimens experienced buckling damage at low load levels, while an increase in the number of the layers led to higher load-carrying capacity and different types of damages. Furthermore, as the number of the layers increased, the load-carrying capacity and energy absorption of the specimens significantly improved. Progressive failure was observed in the specimens [+/- 90] for all the layers' configurations, with the specimen [+/- 90]3, having three layers, exhibiting the highest performance in terms of the load-carrying capacity and energy absorption. The failure modes indicated a combination of the fibers' separation, buckling, diagonal shear failure, and crushing in the upper and lower heads.Öğe Effects of eccentric loading on performance of concrete columns reinforced with glass fiber-reinforced polymer bars(Nature Portfolio, 2024) Mahmoudabadi, Nasim Shakouri; Bahrami, Alireza; Saghir, Saba; Ahmad, Afaq; Iqbal, Muhammad; Elchalakani, Mohamed; Ozkilic, Yasin OnuralpGlass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) reinforcements are superior to traditional steel bars in concrete structures, particularly in vertical elements like columns, and offer significant advantages over conventional steel bars when subjected to axial and eccentric loadings. However, there is limited experimental and numerical research on the behavior of GFRP-reinforced concrete (RC) columns under eccentric loading having different spacing of stirrups. In this study, six specimens were cast under three different values of eccentricities (25 mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm) with two groups of stirrups spacing (50 mm and 100 mm). The experimental results showed that by increasing the eccentricity value, there was a reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the specimens. The finite element ABAQUS software was used for the numerical investigation of this study. The results from the finite element analysis (FEA) were close to the experimental results and within the acceptable range. The maximum difference between the experimental and FEA results was 3.61% for the axial load and 12.06% for the deformation.Öğe Effects of glass fiber on recycled fly ash and basalt powder based geopolymer concrete(Elsevier, 2023) Celik, Ali Ihsan; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Bahrami, Alireza; Hakeem, Ibrahim Y.This experimental study encompasses a comprehensive exploration of multiple parameters aiming to enhance the strength, workability, setting time, and environmental attributes of geopolymer concrete (GPC). A pivotal solution lies in substituting fly ash with waste basalt powder, not only reducing binder costs but also ameliorating the overall ecological footprint. A secondary signif-icant factor entails the integration of trimmed glass fibers. Throughout the experimentation process, the predominant GPC binder and fly ash underwent substitution with basalt powder at the proportions of 25%, 50%, and 75%. The mixtures were augmented with glass fibers of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 12 mm lengths, introduced at the ratios of 0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 3%. Then, the acquired samples were subjected to a 24-h curing regimen in an 85 degrees C oven. Subsequently, after a 7-day period of exposure to external conditions post-incubation, these samples were tested for both the compressive and flexural strengths. Samples incorporating a basalt ratio of 50% exhibited the highest capacities, contrasting with reduced capacities when the basalt ratio was elevated to 75%. Conversely, samples utilizing a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) molarity (M) of 12 demonstrated su-perior performance. Impressively, the compressive strength exceeding 40 MPa was achieved with the amalgamation of M 12 and 50% basalt additive. However, the workability experienced a notable reduction at the fiber ratios of 2% and 3%. The molarity concentrations did not impede the slump, workability, or setting time. A consistent setting time of 6 h was attained, and the desired workability was obtained without the need for a superplasticizer. For achieving the optimal triad of the workability, setting time, and strength, while maximizing the environmental advantages of GPC, the recommendation is to incorporate a distinct combination comprising 1-2% glass fibers (with 12 mm length), M 12, and 50% basalt powder into the mixture formulation.Öğe Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Construction Defects in Reinforced Concrete Corbels(Mdpi, 2023) Shabbir, Faisal; Bahrami, Alireza; Ahmad, Ibrar; Shakouri Mahmoudabadi, Nasim; Iqbal, Muhammad; Ahmad, Afaq; Ozkilic, Yasin OnuralpReinforced concrete corbels were examined in this study for the cracking behavior and strength evaluation, focusing on defects typically found in these structures. A total of 11 corbel specimens were tested, including healthy specimens (HS), specimens with lower concrete strength (LC), specimens with less reinforcement ratio (LR), and specimens with more concrete cover than specifications (MC). The HS specimens were designed using the ACI conventional method. The specimens were tested under static loading conditions, and the actual strengths along with the crack patterns were determined. In the experimental tests, the shear capacity of the HS specimens was 28.18% and 57.95% higher than the LR and LC specimens, respectively. Similarly, the moment capacity of the HS specimens was 25% and 57.52% greater than the LR and LC specimens, respectively. However, in the case of the built-up sections, the shear capacity of the HS specimens was 9.91% and 37.51% higher than the LR and LC specimens, respectively. Likewise, the moment capacity of the HS specimens was 39.91% and 14.30% higher than the LR and LC specimens, respectively. Moreover, a detailed nonlinear finite element model (FEM) was developed using ABAQUS, and a more user-friendly strut and tie model (STM) was investigated toward its suitability to assess the strengths of the corbels with construction defects. The results from FEM and STM were compared. It was found that the FEM results were in close agreement with their experimental counterparts.Öğe Experimental investigation and analytical prediction of flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams with steel fibres extracted from waste tyres(Elsevier, 2023) Yildizel, Sadik Alper; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Bahrami, Alireza; Aksoylu, Ceyhun; Basaran, Bogachan; Hakamy, Ahmad; Arslan, Musa HakanIn recent years, studies on the use of car tyre wastes in concrete have gained momentum. Especially, the effect of recycled waste steel wires (RWSWs) from tyres to be mixed into concrete for using in newly designed reinforced concrete buildings on the performance of construction elements is a fairly new research area. In this study, the bending behaviour of 12 reinforced concrete beams was investigated having 1/3 geometric scale, 100 x 150 x 1000 mm in size, and produced with RWSWs additive in different volumetric ratios (1%, 2%, and 3%) under vertical loads. Another main parameter selected in the study was the amount of varying tension reinforcements (24)12, 24)10, and 24)8). The load-carrying, stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation capacities of the RWSW reinforced bending beams were compared with the primary aim of this study which was to examine and present the contribution of RWSWs on the improvement of the bending performance of the reinforced concrete beams. The results revealed that the mechanical properties of the hybrid beams with RWSWs vary depending on dosages but are comparable with those of the beams-only with the same fibre dosage. A positive effect was obtained for the hybrid beams containing 2-3% RWSWs. Besides, RWSWs were found to be highly well mobilised at larger crack widths, and the post-cracking strength of RWSW mixes was significantly higher. Considering both mechanical properties of the beams and fresh properties such as the workability, 2% of RWSWs is recommended to be utilised in the reinforced concrete beams. On the other hand, the results were compared with the predictions of the methods given in the literature and standards. Moreover, an equation was derived to better predict the capacity of the hybrid beams using RWSWs.Öğe Experimental study on using recycled polyethylene terephthalate and steel fibers for improving behavior of RC columns(Elsevier, 2023) Fayed, Sabry; Madenci, Emrah; Bahrami, Alireza; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Mansour, WalidIn this research, the behavior of RC columns reinforced with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers and steel fibers (SFs) was experimentally investigated. The experimental work included testing of 8 columns with the dimensions of 150 x 150 x 1000 mm subjected to the axial loading up to failure. Three volume fractions (1%, 2%, and 3%) were considered for both PET fibers and SFs. The axial/lateral displacements of the columns and the transverse/vertical strains versus the loads of the bars were recorded. The peak load, yield load, failure mode, ductility, and stiffness of the columns were studied in detail. The effects of plastic fibers (PFs) and SFs on the concrete characteristics were experimentally examined. Using 2% SFs in the mix increased the compressive strength, tensile strength, and toughness of concrete by 12.7%, 87.6%, and 304.8%, respectively. Furthermore, enhancement rates of the ultimate load capacity, stiffness, and ductility of the columns with 2% SFs were 15.6%, 72.6%, and 34.29%, respectively. The ultimate load capacity, initial stiffness, and ductility of the columns reinforced with 1% PF fiber were 9.43%, 62.6%, and 19.4%, respectively, greater than those of the columns without fibers. The columns' capacity was decreased with increasing SFs and PFs over 2%. An equation from ACI was used to predict the columns' capacity and the results agreed well with the experimental results.Öğe Mechanical performance of geopolymer concrete with micro silica fume and waste steel lathe scraps(Elsevier, 2023) Celik, Ali Ihsan; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Bahrami, Alireza; Hakeem, Ibrahim Y.Environmental studies for solutions are among the most important agendas of the scientific world. Most of the new studies are taking into account environmental effects. However, it is interesting for the scientific world to find solutions for accumulated environmental problems, to reduce harmful production, and to turn wastes that cause environmental pollution into useful products. In addition to incorporating fly ash, a recognized environmentally friendly and sustainable ma-terial, geopolymer concrete, utilizes micro silica fume (micro silica) as a binding agent. Furthermore, waste lathe scraps are introduced to enhance and safeguard the concrete's me-chanical properties. During the preparation phase, significant enhancements have been identified in the workability and setting time of concrete. A total of 16 test samples were prepared in this study. Micro silica of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20%, and lathe scraps of 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3% were examined. Experimental findings revealed that incorporating 5% micro silica resulted in notable improvements in the compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths, with the increases of 14.4%, 7.45%, and 6.18%, respectively. However, higher additions of 10% and 20% were found to decrease these strengths. In contrast, the inclusion of 1% lathe scraps led to considerable in-creases in the compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths by 11.4%, 6.35%, and 8.23%, respectively. However, the addition of 2% and 3% lathe scraps resulted in the reduced capacity. The findings demonstrated that combining 5% micro silica with 1% lathe scraps provided the highest strength, with the improvements of 25.7%, 14.4%, and 12% in the compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths, respectively. Considering the enhancements in the workability, setting time, and strengths observed in all the tests, the recommended optimal geopolymer mixture is 5% micro silica together with 1% lathe scraps.Öğe Optimum usage of waste marble powder to reduce use of cement toward eco-friendly concrete(Elsevier, 2023) Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Zeybek, Ozer; Bahrami, Alireza; Celik, Ali Ihsan; Mydin, Md Azree Othuman; Karalar, Memduh; Hakeem, Ibrahim Y.In this study, waste marble powder (WMP) was used to replace cement of concrete in specific amounts. To accomplish this aim, WMP was replaced at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of the cement weight, and a reference concrete sample without WMP (REF) was created to compare the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and flexural strength. The replacement of WMP at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of the cement weight resulted in 5.7%, 21.7%, 38.1%, and 43.6% decreases in the compressive strength compared with REF. Furthermore, the splitting tensile strength results commonly followed the same trend as the compressive strength. However, WMP at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% led to 5.3%, 8.6%, 19.4%, and 26.7% decreases in the flexural strength compared with REF. In addition, three different calculations, ranging from simple to complex, were proposed to compute me-chanical resistances of concrete with WMP. These proposed calculations for practical ap-plications were validated using values from the literature and the implications obtained from the current research. While the simple calculations were based on the strength of REF and the WMP percentages, the complex calculations were dependent on the design of the concrete mixture, age of the samples, and the WMP percentages. For the complex calcu-lations, the ANN approach was used with the help of the coefficient of determination (R2) for the K-fold cross validation method. All the proposed methods provided high accurate estimation to predict the properties of concrete with WMP. Based on the studies, utilizing 10% WMP as the replacement of cement is recommended to obtain the optimum benefits considering both mechanical and environmental aspects. Moreover, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses were then conducted to observe the interaction of WMP in concrete. According to the SEM analyses, some pores were detected and the interfacial transition zone was observed in the reaction zone. On the other hand, based on the EDX analyses, the presence of WMP in concrete was manifested by the presence of high levels of calcium.(c) 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Öğe Performance Prediction of Hybrid Bamboo-Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Gene Expression Programming for Sustainable Construction(Mdpi, 2023) Waqas, Hafiz Ahmed; Bahrami, Alireza; Sahil, Mehran; Poshad Khan, Adil; Ejaz, Ali; Shafique, Taimoor; Tariq, ZainThe building and construction industry's demand for steel reinforcement bars has increased with the rapid growth and development in the world. However, steel production contributes to harmful waste and emissions that cause environmental pollution and climate change-related problems. In light of sustainable construction practices, bamboo, a readily accessible and eco-friendly building material, is suggested as a viable replacement for steel rebars. Its cost-effectiveness, environmental sustainability, and considerable tensile strength make it a promising option. In this research, hybrid beams underwent analysis through the use of thoroughly validated finite element models (FEMs), wherein the replacement of steel rebars with bamboo was explored as an alternative reinforcement material. The standard-size beams were subjected to three-point loading using FEMs to study parameters such as the load-deflection response, energy absorption, maximum capacity, and failure patterns. Then, gene expression programming was integrated to aid in developing a more straightforward equation for predicting the flexural strength of bamboo-reinforced concrete beams. The results of this study support the conclusion that the replacement of a portion of flexural steel with bamboo in reinforced concrete beams does not have a detrimental impact on the overall load-bearing capacity and energy absorption of the structure. Furthermore, it may offer a cost-effective and feasible alternative.Öğe Predicting characteristics of cracks in concrete structure using convolutional neural network and image processing(Frontiers Media Sa, 2023) Qayyum, Waqas; Ehtisham, Rana; Bahrami, Alireza; Mir, Junaid; Khan, Qaiser Uz Zaman; Ahmad, Afaq; Ozkilic, Yasin OnuralpThe degradation of infrastructures such as bridges, highways, buildings, and dams has been accelerated due to environmental and loading consequences. The most popular method for inspecting existing concrete structures has been visual inspection. Inspectors assess defects visually based on their engineering expertise, competence, and experience. This method, however, is subjective, tiresome, inefficient, and constrained by the requirement for access to multiple components of complex structures. The angle, width, and length of the crack allow us to figure out the cause of the propagation and extent of the damage, and rehabilitation can be suggested based on them. This research proposes an algorithm based on a pre-trained convolutional neural network (CNN) and image processing (IP) to obtain the crack angle, width, endpoint length, and actual path length in a concrete structure. The results show low relative errors of 2.19%, 14.88%, and 1.11%, respectively for the crack angle, width, and endpoint length from the CNN and IP methods developed in this research. The actual path length is found to be 14.69% greater than the crack endpoint length. When calculating the crack length, it is crucial to consider its irregular shape and the likelihood that its actual path length will be greater than the direct distance between the endpoints. This study suggests measurement methods that precisely consider the crack shape to estimate its actual path length.Öğe Use of calcium carbonate nanoparticles in production of nano-engineered foamed concrete(Elsevier, 2023) Mydin, Md Azree Othuman; Jagadesh, P.; Bahrami, Alireza; Dulaimi, Anmar; Ozkilic, Yasin Onuralp; Abdullah, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri; Jaya, Ramadhansyah PutraResearchers have shown significant interest in the incorporation of nanoscale components into concrete, primarily driven by the unique properties exhibited by these nanoelements. A nanoparticle comprises numerous atoms arranged in a cluster ranging from 10 nm to 100 nm in size. The brittleness of foamed concrete (FC) can be effectively mitigated by incorporating nanoparticles, thereby improving its overall properties. The objective of this investigation is to analyze the effects of incorporating calcium carbonate nanoparticles (CCNPs) into FC on its mechanical and durability properties. FC had a 750 kg/m3 density, which was achieved using a binder-filler ratio of 1:1.5 and a water-to-binder ratio of 0.45. The CCNPs material exhibited a purity level of 99.5% and possessed a fixed grain size of 40 nm. A total of seven mixes were prepared, incorporating CCNPs in FC mixes at the specific weight fractions of 0% (control), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, and 6%. The properties that were assessed included the slump, bulk density, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, compressive strength, permeable porosity, water absorption, drying shrinkage, softening coefficient, and microstructural characterization. The results suggested that incorporating CCNPs into FC enhanced its mechanical and durability properties, with the most optimal improvement observed at the CCNPs addition of 4%. In comparison to the control specimen, it was witnessed that specimens containing 4% CCNPs demonstrated remarkably higher capacities in the compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural tests, with the increases of 66%, 52%, and 59%, respectively. The addition of CCNPs resulted in an improvement in the FC porosity and water absorption. However, it also led to a decrease in the workability of the mixtures. Furthermore, the study provided the correlations between the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength, as well as the correlations between the compressive strength and flexural strength. In addition, an artificial neural network approach was employed, utilizing k-fold cross validation, to predict the compressive strength. The confirmation of the property enhancement was made through the utilization of a scanning electron microscope. & COPY; 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Öğe Use of waste glass powder toward more sustainable geopolymer concrete(Elsevier, 2023) Celik, Ali Ihsan; Tunc, Ufuk; Bahrami, Alireza; Karalar, Memduh; Mydin, Md Azree Othuman; Alomayri, Thamer; Ozkilic, Yasin OnuralpThe influence of waste glass powder (WGP) with fly ash in certain proportions on geo-polymer concrete (GPC) was investigated by exchanging different proportions of molarity and WGP percentages in GPC. For this objective, fly ash was altered with WGP having percentages of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%, and the effect of molarity of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was examined. The compressive strength tests, splitting tensile tests, and flexural strength tests were conducted. The workability and setting time were also evaluated. With the addition of WGP, the workability for molarities (M) of 11, 13, and 16 NaOH reduced by an average of 17%, 10%, and 67%, respectively. The findings showed that the slump values decreased as the molarity and WGP percentages increased. Molarity significantly affected the setting time, but WGP had no effect on the setting time. Although high molarity increased the capacity, this had a noticeable negative effect on the setting time and workability. This study demonstrated that WGP had a slight negative effect on the capacity and workability. Furthermore, when the combined effects of WGP and NaOH molarity were taken into account, the use of 10% WGP with M13 NaOH was recommended to obtain the optimum sustainable GPC considering both fresh and hardening properties. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was done on the samples, too.& COPY; 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
